Wikipedia

Negro Rebellion

1912 series of protests and uprisings in Cuba

The Negro Rebellion was a series of revolts and uprisings in Eastern Cuba. It began around May 20th, 1912 and ended in July. The rebellion was crushed by the government, with help from William H. Taft and the United States, and both leaders were killed in the war. This rebellion saw the formation of the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade.

Negro Rebellion
Part of Banana wars

Map of The Republic of Cuba
Date20th May, 1912 - July, 1912
Location
Cuba
Result

Rebellion defeated

  • Partido Independiente de Color Dissolved
  • Rebellions Leaders Killed
Belligerents

 Cuba

Supported by:

 United States		 Cuba Partido Independiente de Color
Commanders and leaders

José Miguel Gómez
George C. Thorpe
Lincoln Karmany

Jesus Monteagudo

Pedro Ivonnet †

Evaristo Estenoz †
Units involved

Cuban National Army

1st Provisional Marine Brigade		 Afro-Cuban Rebels
Casualties and losses
12 (according to the CNA) 3,000-6,000
<1,200 Civilians dead

The American military came in to protect American Companies in Cuba and saw combat there. Over 3,000 Afro-Cuban rebels were killed during the war, some estimates put that at 6,000 deaths. The government claims only 12 men were killed during the war. Some sources (such as Guillermo Lara) claim that 2,000 men were killed , but North American estimates put it at 5,000-6,000.

Background

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Slavery

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After the discovery of America, slavery was introduced and over 800,000 people were enslaved in Cuba, as Cuba was the largest Slave Hub.[1][2][3] These were primarily Taínon and Guanahatabey peoples who mixed with the slaves from Africa, thus making Afro-Cubans.[4][5][6] There was also a genocide against the Taínon by the Spanish.[7] Evaristo Estenoz made the Partido Independiente de Color which was a party that wanted equality for Afro-Cubans in the sugarcane industry, as many of them were employed there. When the PID was first made, many Afro-Cubans supported the movement since it pushed for equality and better working conditions.[8]

Banana Wars

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See the main article: Banana Wars
 
Us soldiers in Nicaragua after capturing the flag of Augusto César Sandino, a revolutionary.

The Banana Wars were a series of wars, conflicts, rebellions and occupation by the United States between the end of the Spanish-American war in 1898 and 1934.[9][10] The United States Army would usually fight there and the United States Navy sometimes provided support. They took place in Central America and the Caribbean, in these countries:[11]

But on August 1st, 1934, Franklin D. Roosevelt pulled out all U.S soldiers in occupied territories.[12] There was a manual of what to do in the wars called the "Small Wars Manual" which was written by experienced soldiers of the United States Marine Corps.[13] This manual was also used in the War in Iraq by the 1st Infantry Division.[14]

American Marines in Cuba

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In 1895, the PID started the War of 1895 which was unsuccessful, but the PID regrouped in 1912 and also caused some unrest.[15] As a response, the United States sent 688 police officers and marines to the Naval Base at Guantanamo base under Major George C. Thorpe.[16] They garrisoned the Naval base and secured it in case of any further unrest. During the time they were there, the PID was arming themselves and getting ready for a rebellion.

Even though they didn't have many guns, they still had several hundred men, mostly peasants, and were lead by Evaristo Estenoz. Later, the rebellion had several thousand men. But before the uprising, José Miguel Gómez, the president of Cuba ordered that the party be disbanded under the Morúa law.[17]

Rebellion

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Start

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On the 20th of May, Estenoz and his rebellion fought the Cuban National Army.[18] The fighting took place in Oriente Province, where most Afro-Cubans were. But there was also some fighting in Las Villas Province in the west, . At first, the rebels were winning against the Cuban National Army. The army was being pushed back. On May 23rd, the president José Miguel Gómez requested help from William H. Taft, the president of the United States.

On the 28th of May,[18] the first United States Marines landed in Deer Point, Guantanamo Bay under Colonel Lincoln Karmany.[19] The 1st Provisional Regiment of Marines had about 809 men.[19] Once they landed they were ordered to meet up with Major Thorpe's battalion which was in Guantanamo Bay's Naval Base.

Cuban Response

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The Cuban government and news talked terribly about the rebels and started rumors and propaganda. The president ordered that his people to fight for "Civilization", and fight against "ferocious savagery." He also showed a picture of a "raped teacher" which was confirmed to be fake news and Cuban government propaganda by "El Dia" a conservative newspaper.

"El Dia" wanted Cuba to copy the Jim Crow laws from the United States, which segregated black people and mistreated them, giving them less rights than a white man. They also argued that "dominated races do submit". But Afro-Cuban politicians were against this and were worried by the racism and anger that the rebellion caused. The reputation of Juan Gualberto Gomez, an Afro-Cuban, was also damaged because he wrote a manifesto against the racism.[18]

American Intervention

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On June 7th, the 2nd Provisional Regiment under Colonel James E. Mahoney landed at Guantanamo Bay. It had 1,292 men and officers. The 1st battalion landed in Havana, Cuba, on June 10th. The USS Mississippi also sent a detachment to El Cuero on June 19th.[20] For the men that landed in Guantanamo, only one battalion was commanded. The rest were under Colonel Karmany, who took command of all unassigned troops and organized the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade.[21]

In total, there were about 2,789 American men and officers in total in Cuba. Half of them were sent to occupy towns and cities and the other half was kept in Guantanamo. The Marines also guarded American sugarcane plantations, copper mines, railroads and trains that were owned by American companies. The Afro-Cubans attacked the Marines only one time, at El Cuero but they lost the battle and both sides suffered 0 casualties.[22]

Suppression

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During June of 1912, Estenoz started losing a lot of land to the Cuban National Army, his rebels became less organized and many died. Before June there were about 3,000 men, but after it went to about 1,800 men. Some sources say that over 6,000 men were killed. President José Miguel Gómez offered peace to any rebels who would surrender by June 22nd, but Estenoz rejected this offer and continued to fight with a couple hundred men. Most other rebels surrendered.

Estenoz was killed on the 27th of June,[16][23][24] after he was shot in the back of the head by soldiers in the Cuban National Army. After he died, the rebel factions became smaller. The most important faction of rebels was under Pedro Ivonnet, who escaped to the mountains and started to use guerrilla warfare. But he was pushed out of the mountains and surrendered on July 18th. He was killed when he tried to escape. At that time, the war was over.

After Estenoz died, President José Miguel Gómez announced that the Marines were no longer needed, and they started to withdraw from Cuba. They went from Guantanamo Naval Base to bases in the United States. The last Marines to leave Cuba left on August 2nd, on the USS Prairie.

Other Names

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The Negro Rebellion had other names used by the Government, people, rebels and the press. These were:

  • Levantamiento Armado de los Independientes de Color
  • Armed Uprising of the Independents of Color
  • Little Race War
  • War of 1912
  • War of 1912 In Cuba
  • The Twelve
  • Massacre of the Colored Independents
  • Black Rebellion

Aftermath

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After the Rebellion ended and the United States Marines left Cuba, it was reported that between 2,000 and 6,000 people died, including civilians and combatants. The Cuban National Army said that they only lost 12 men.[18] The PID was also dissolved because there was nobody to lead it. The Cuban government was victorious and the entire rebellion was put down. Those who didn't surrender were killed or went home.[18]

1200 Afro-Cuban rebels surrendered but about 500 of them made it home. The bodies of both of the leaders, Ivonnet and Estenoz, were put in public to humiliate them. They were also buried in normal and common graves to not signify them or make them a public figure.[18]

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References

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  1. ↑ Murray, David (1999). The slave trade, slavery and Cuban independence. Slavery and Abolition. pp. 106–126.
  2. ↑ H.S, Aimes Hubert . (1907). A History of Slavery in Cuba, 1511 to 1868. New York: New York and London, G. P. Putnam's sons, 1907.
  3. ↑ Utset, Marial I.; Gonzalez, Jorge F. "Cuba and the United States in the Atlantic Slave Trade (1789–1820)". Hutchi. MSU. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
  4. ↑ Ródriguez-Mangual, Edna M. (2004). Lydia Cabrera and the Construction of an Afro Cuban Cultural Identity. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. pp. 1–167.
  5. ↑ Finch, Aisha; Rushing, Fannie (2019). Breaking the Chains Forging the Nation: The Afro-Cuban Fight for Freedom and Equality. Baton Rouge: LA: Louisiana State University Press. pp. 98–114. ISBN 9780807170991.
  6. ↑ Arnedo-Gómez, Miguel (2006). Writing Rumba: The Afrocubanista Movement in Poetry. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. pp. 1–170.
  7. ↑ "Genocide Studies Program: Hispaniola". Yale. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
  8. ↑ Brock, Lisa (1994). Back to the Future: African-Americans and Cuba in the Time(s) of Race (12 ed.). Art Institute of Chicago.
  9. ↑ Gilderhurst, Mark (1999). The Second Century: Second Century: U.S.-Latin American Relations Since 1889.
  10. ↑ Constance G., Anthony (2008). American democratic interventionism: Romancing the iconic Woodrow Wilson. International Studies Perspectives. pp. 239–253.
  11. ↑ Weeks, Gregory B (2015). U.S. and Latin American relations. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-91252-2.
  12. ↑ Lester D., Langley (1983). The Banana Wars: United States Intervention in the Caribbean, 1898–1934. University Press of Kentucky. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8420-5047-0.
  13. ↑ Callwell, Sir Charles Edward (2017). "Small Wars: Their Principles and Practice". Navy Department Library.
  14. ↑ Schlosser, Dr. Nicholas J. (2010). "The Marine Corps' Small Wars Manual: An Old Solution to a New Challenge?". Fortitudine: 4–9.
  15. ↑ Robert L, Sheina (2003). America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo 1791–1899 (Correlates of War Project ed.). University of Michigan.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Clark, George B. (2010). Battle History of the United States Marine Corps, 1775–1945. McFarland. p. 21. ISBN 9780786456215.
  17. ↑ "A Brief Look at Martín Morúa Delgado". historyofcuba. Archived from the original on 24 February 2023. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 "Race War of 1912 - A Timeline". hoc. Archived from the original on 19 August 2022. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Edwin, Simmons. The United States Marines: A History. Naval Institute Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-1-55750-868-3.
  20. ↑ "USS Mississippi, Battleship (BB-23) History". Josediaz.net. Josediaz.net. Retrieved 15 March 2014.
  21. ↑ "Lineage". 1st Marine Division. 1st Marine Division. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
  22. ↑ I, Musicant (1990). The Banana Wars. New York: MacMillan Publishing Co. pp. 70–71. ISBN 0025882104.
  23. ↑ "The 1912 Massacre of AfroCubans". AfroCubaWeb. AfroCubaWeb. Retrieved 27 February 2023.
  24. ↑ "Cuba 1912: La masacre racista"". AfroCubaWeb. AfroCubaWeb. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
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