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List of Pakistani monarchs
changeThe Pakistani monarchs were the rulers of Pakistan or the Greater Indus region throughout its Ancient, Medieval, Early Modern and Modern periods.[1][2][3] The earliest known monarchs are from the Ror dynasty (c. 450 BCE–489 CE) of Sindh with uncertain and contested historicity, followed by the Euthydemid dynasty (c. 230 BCE–10 CE) of the Indo-Greeks.[4][5][6] Pakistan is historically important as a central area for many empires and kingdoms. Recognized as one of the oldest continuously inhabited lands in the world, Pakistan is considered a diverse cradle of civilizations.[7] The Harappan civilization, one of the world’s earliest, had a complex society, but there is limited evidence about centralized rulers or governance. Three main theories about Harappan governance are: a unified state covering all communities, more than one rulers for major urban centers like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, or a society without where everyone had equal status.[8]
Located at the crossroads of Asia, Pakistan has been ruled by various dynasties during different periods and in different regions. In ancient times, Pakistani monarchs included the Ror (c. 450 BCE–489 CE), Indo-Greek (c. 230 BCE–10 CE), Indo-Scythian (c. 90 BCE–10 CE), Indo-Parthian (c. 25 BCE–240 CE), Mauryan (c. 322–185 BCE), and Kushan (c. 30–375 CE) rulers.[9] The medieval period saw the rise of powerful dynasties such as the Ghaznavids (c. 971–1186 CE) and Ghurids (c. 1170–1215 CE), which played key roles in spreading Islam and forming Islamic states.[10] The Delhi Sultanate (c. 1206–1526 CE), including the Khalji (c. 1290–1320 CE) and Tughlaq (c. 1320–1413 CE) dynasties, greatly influenced the region’s political landscape. The Mughal Empire later unified much of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent, bringing significant cultural and administrative advancements.[11] After the Mughal decline, regional monarchies and princely states, such as the Khanate of Kalat (c. 1666–1955 CE), the Katoor dynasty (c. 1340–1969 CE), the Ayasho dynasty (c. 874–1974 CE), the Abbasi Dynasty (c. 1748–1955 CE), the Talpur dynasty (c. 1783–1955) and the states of Nagar (c. 1354–1974 CE), Swat (c. 1000–1969 CE), Dir (c. 1540–1969 CE) and others, continued to rule the region even after Pakistan's independence in 1947.[12]
In the early modern period, the Sikh Empire (c. 1799–1849 CE) ruled the Punjab region of Pakistan.[13] The British Raj (c. 1858–1947 CE) included the Princely states in its colonial framework, with the monarchy lasting until the formal abolition of the British crown in Pakistan in 1956. The last monarch to reign unified Pakistan was Queen Elizabeth II until 23 March 1956.[14]
For the purposes of the list, Pakistani monarchs are the monarchs of the empires and kingdoms that were centred in Pakistan or the Greater Indus region, the list may not include monarchs who ruled Pakistan when it was part of an larger empire centred outside of the Greater Indus region.
Royal titles and ranks
changePakistan has a rich history that spans thousands of years and includes numerous tribes, kingdoms, empires, cultures, languages, and religions. This diverse history has led to a variety of royal titles and aristocratic ranks, each with different meanings and uses depending on the region and culture. Monarchism has a long tradition in Pakistan and continued even after the country's independence, until 1974 when the last princely states joined Pakistan. Some of these royal titles are still used by descendants in modern Pakistan:
- Padshah/Badshah: "Padshah" (بادشاہ) means "master king" and was used by many important rulers in Pakistan and Persia. It indicates high status and power, similar to the European title of Emperor. It can also be spelled "Padishah," "Padeshah," or "Badshah."
- Maharaja: "Maharaja" (مہاراجہ) means "great king" or "great prince." It ranks below Padshah but above Raja. The term comes from the Sanskrit words "mahat" (great) and "rajan" (king). Notable Maharaja include Maharaja Ranjit Singh, founder and the ruler of the Sikh Empire in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
- Nawab: The title "Nawab" (نواب) was used for rulers below Emperors or Padshahs. It was often given to Muslim rulers in the Mughal Empire who governed their own regions but were loyal to the Mughal Emperor. During British rule, the title was given to people of importance or merit. The female equivalent is "Nawab Begum" or "Begum." Children of a Nawab are called Nawabzada (sons) and Nawabzadi (daughters).
- Raja: A "Raja" (راجہ) is a ruler or king of a princely state. Sometimes, the title indicates noble status without real power. The term comes from "rājan," which means ruler. The wife of a Raja is called "Rani," and their children are called Rajkumar (sons) or Rajkumari (daughters). The area ruled by a Raja may be called a "Raj".
- Thakur: "Thakur" (ٹھاڪر) is an ancient royal title used mainly in Sindh and parts of Punjab. It comes from the Sanskrit word "thākura," meaning idol, god, or lord. In the past, it was similar to the European title of Duke or Prince. The wife of a Thakur is called "Thakurani," and their children are called Kumar (sons) or Kumari (daughters). The area ruled by a Thakur is known as a "Thikana."[15]
George Ali Murad Khan, the last monarch of the Talpur dynasty, sitting on throne, July 1947. - Mehtar: "Mehtar" or "Mitaar" (مطار) in Khowar, is the title of the king in the Chitral region of northwestern Pakistan, which was a independent kingdom until ruled by the Katoor dynasty until 1969.
- Tham: "Tham" meaning king in the Burushaski language is the title used for the rulers of the states of Hunza and Nagar in northern Pakistan. The Queen is titled "Ghenish".[16]
- Gyalpo: "Gyalpo" (རྒྱལ་པོ་) means "king" in the Tibetic languages. It is used for rulers in the Baltistan region of Pakistan. It also refers to the Four Heavenly Kings in Tibetan mythology and various spirits in both Buddhist and Bon traditions. This title was used by the Makpon, Yabgo and Amacha rulers of northeastern Pakistan.
- Basileus: "Basileus" (βασιλεύς) is a Greek term meaning "king" or "emperor." It was used by early Indo-Greek rulers in Hellenistic Pakistan. The related term "basileia" refers to "sovereignty" or "kingdom." The feminine forms are "basileia" (queen) and "basilissa" (empress).
- Shehenshah: "Shehenshah" (شہنشاہ) meaning "King of Kings" was a title was used by rulers of the Kushan and Mughal empires to show their high status and power.
Name | Portrait | Birth | Reign length | Death | Purported life details |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Demetrius I
Δημήτριος Ἀνίκητος (Demetrius the unconquered) |
c. 222 BC | c. 200 – c. 180 BC[17] | c. 167 BC | Expanded into northern Pakistan, establishing early Hellenistic influence and the Indo-Greek kingdom in the region of Gandhara. | |
Agathocles I Dicaeus
Ἀγαθοκλῆς Δικαῖος (Agathocles the just) |
Between c. 190 – c. 180 BC | Ruler known for his efforts to consolidate the Indo-Greek control in northern Pakistan, particularly the region of Gandhara. | |||
Pantaleon
Πανταλέων |
Between c. 190 – c. 180 BC | c. 180 BCE | He was a younger contemporary or successor of king Demetrius I, and is sometimes believed to have been his brother and/or subking. | ||
Antimachus I
Ἀντίμαχος Α΄ ὁ Θεός (Antimachus the God) |
c. 171 – c. 160 BCE | On his coinage, Antimachus called himself Theos, "The God", a first in the Hellenistic world. This indicates that Antimachus I might have been instrumental in creating a royal state cult. | |||
Apollodotus I
Ἀπολλόδοτος Α΄ ὁ Σωτήρ (Apollodotus the Savior) |
c. 180 – c. 160 BC or between c. 174 – c. 165 BC | c. 163 – c. 162 BC | Apollodotus I ruled the western and southern parts of the Indo-Greek kingdom, from Taxila in the Punjab region to the areas of Sindh. | ||
Demetrius II
Δημήτριος |
c. 175 – c. 170 BC or c. 140 BC | An Indo-Greek king who ruled briefly during the 2nd century BC. Little is known about him and there are different views about how to date him. Earlier authors such as Tarn and Narain saw him as a son and sub-king of Demetrius I, but this view has now been abandoned. | |||
Antimachus II
Ἀντίμαχος Β΄ ὁ Νικηφόρος (Antimachus the Victorious) |
c. 174 – c. 165 BCE | Antimachus II Ruled a vast territory from the Hindu-Kush to the Punjab around 170 BCE. He was almost certainly the eponymous son of Antimachus I, who is known from a unique preserved tax receipt. | |||
Eucratides I
Εὐκρατίδης (Eucratides the Great) |
c. 205 BC | c. 171 – c. 145 BC | c. 145 BC | Eucratides I was one of the most important Indo-Greek kings. He conquered large parts of northern Pakistan by overthrowing the Euthydemid dynasty and minted a vast and prestigious coinage, suggesting a rule of considerable importance and prosperity. | |
Menander I
Μένανδρος Σωτήρ (Menander the Saviour) |
c. 180 BC | c. 165/155 – c. 130 BC | c. 130 BC | ||
Zoilus I
Ζωΐλος Δίκαιος (Zoilus the just) |
c. 130 – c. 120 BCE |
Ror dynasty
changeThe Ror dynasty (روهڙا راڄ) was a prominent ruling dynasty in the region of Sindh, Pakistan, with its origins traced back to the early historical period. It was a Sindhi-Buddhist dynasty founded by Dhaj, also known as Ror Kumar in around 450 BC, the dynasty played a significant role in the historical and cultureal development of Sindh.[18] The Ror dynasty established its capital in Rori, which is now modern-day Rohri and Sukkur. This dynasty was known for its influence over the region and its succession of 42 kings, who governed until Raja Dadror, who was poisoned by his head priest (Dewaji), in 620 AD. The rulers of Ror dynasty are one of the earliest known monarchs of Pakistan. The following table lists the chronology of the Ror monarchs from its inception until the end of its reign in 489 AD.[19]
Rori, also known as Roruka, was the capital of the Ror dynasty. It was previously also the capital of the Sauvira Kingdom. Roruka is mentioned as an important trading center in early Buddhist literature.[20] Buddhist Jataka stories talk about exchanges of gifts between King Rudrayan of Roruka and King Bimbisara of Magadha.[21] Divyavadana, the Buddhist chronicle has said that Ror historically competed with Pataliputra in terms of political influence.[22] The scholar T.W. Rhys Davids has mentioned Roruka as one of the most important cities of the subcontinent in the 7th century BCE.[23]
Shortly after the reign of Rudrayan, in the times of his son Shikhandi, Roruka got wiped out in a major sand storm.[24] This event is recorded in both Buddhist (Bhallatiya Jataka) and Jain annals.[25] It was then that the legendary Dhaj (Rai Diyach in Sindhi folklore) built Rori Shankar, Rohri and Sukkur in Pakistan in the year 450 BC.
Monarch | Sindhi |
---|---|
Dhaj (Ror Kumar) | (ڌج (رور ڪمار |
Kunak | ڪنڪ |
Rurak | رورڪ |
Harak | هارڪ |
Devanik | ڏيوانڪ |
Ahinak | احينڪ |
Paripat | پاريپٽ |
Bal Shah | بال شاهه |
Vijay Bhan | وجيڀن |
Khangar | خانگر |
Brihadrath (Raja Ror) | (برهدرٿ (راجا رور |
Har Ansh | هر انش |
Brihad-datt | برهدر دت |
Ishman | اشمن |
Sridhar | شريدھر |
Mohri | موهري |
Prasann Ket | پرسن ڪيٽ |
Amirvan | اميرون |
Mahasen | ماحسن |
Brihad-dhaul | برهدر ڌول |
Harikeert | هرڪيئرٽ |
Som | سوم |
Mitravan | مترون |
Pushyapata | پوشي پٽا |
Sudaav | سوداو |
Bideerakh | بيدرک |
Nahakman | ناحڪمن |
Mangalmitra | منگلميترا |
Surat | سورٽ |
Pushkar Ket | پوشڪر ڪيٽ |
Antar Ket | انتڙ ڪيٽ |
Sutjaya | ستجيا |
Brihad-dhwaj | برهدر ڌواج |
Bahuk | باهڪ |
Kampjayi | ڪمپجئي |
Kagnish | ڪگنيش |
Kapish | ڪپش |
Sumantra | سومنتر |
Ling-laav | لنگ لاو |
Manasjit | مانس جيت |
Sunder Ket | سندر ڪيٽ |
Dadror | دادرور |
Indo-Greek monarchs
changeToday 36 Indo-Greek kings are known. Several of them are also recorded in Western and Indian historical sources, but the majority are known through numismatic evidence only. The exact chronology and sequencing of their rule is still a matter of scholarly inquiry, with adjustments regular being made with new analysis and coin finds (overstrikes of one king over another's coins being the most critical element in establishing chronological sequences).
There is an important evolution of coin shape (round to square) and material (from gold to silver to brass) across the territories and the periods, and from Greek type to Indian type over a period of nearly 3 centuries. Also, the quality of coinage illustration decreases down to the 1st century AD. Coinage evolution is an important point of Indo-Greek history, and actually one of the most important since most of these kings are only known by their coins, and their chronology is mainly established by the evolution of the coin types.
The system used here is adapted from Osmund Bopearachchi, supplemented by the views of R C Senior and occasionally other authorities.[27]
Indo-Scythian dynasties and rulers
changeSatraps dynasty of Gandhara (c. 85 BCE – 50 CE)
changeThis branch of Indo-Scythian ruled over regions of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Eastern Afghanistan and Gandhara region.
- List of rulers–
- Maues, (c. 85–60 BCE)
- Vonones, (c. 75–65 BCE)
- Spalahores, (c. 75–65 BCE), brother of King Vonones and probably the later King Spalirises
- Spalagadames, (c. 60–57 BCE), son of Spalahores
- Spalirises (c. 57–47 BCE), brother of King Vonones
- Azes I (c. 47–25 BCE), descended from Maues
- Azilises, (c. 25–20 BCE)
- Zeionises, (c. 10 BCE–10 CE)
- Kharahostes, (c. 10 BCE–10 CE)
- Hajatria (c. until 40/50 CE)
Northern Satraps dynasty (c. 60 BCE – 130 CE)
change- List of rulers–
Ruler | Image | Title | Approx. dates | Mentions |
---|---|---|---|---|
Hagamasha | Satrap | 1st century BCE | In the archaeological excavations of Sonkh, near Mathura, the earliest coins of the Kshatrapa levels were those of Hagamasha.[30] | |
Hagana | Satrap | 1st century BCE | ||
Rajuvula | Great Satrap | early 1st century BCE | ||
Bhadayasa | Satrap | 1st century CE | Possible successor of Rajuvula in Eastern Punjab | |
Sodasa | Satrap | 1st century CE | Son of Rajuvula in Mathura | |
Kharapallana | Great Satrap | c. CE 130 | Great Satrap for Kushan ruler Kanishka I | |
Vanaspara | Satrap | c. CE 130 | Satrap for Kushan ruler Kanishka I |
Apracha dynasty (c. 15 BCE – 50 CE)
change- Family tree–
Apracharajas | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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|
- List of rulers–
Ruler | Image | Filiation | Approx. dates | Mentions |
---|---|---|---|---|
Vijayamitra | 12 /15 BCE - 15 CE | Queen: Rukhana | ||
Indravasu | Son of Vijayamitra | c. 20 CE | Queen: Vasumitra | |
Vispavarma or Visnuvarma | Son of Indravasu | Queen: Śiśirena | ||
Iṃdravarmo | Son of Vispavarma | Queen: Utara | ||
Aspo or Aspavarmo | Son of Indravarma | 15 - 45 CE | ||
Sasan | Contemporary of Kujula Kadphises and Mujatria.[31] |
Western Satraps dynasty (c. 50 BCE – 415 CE)
change- Family tree–
Kshaharata dynasty (c. 1st century BCE to 1st century CE)
changeThis branch of Indo-Scythian ruled over regions of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and beyond.
- List of rulers–
- Liaka Kusuluka, satrap of Chuksa
- Kusulaka Patika, satrap of Chuksa and son of Liaka Kusulaka
- Yapirajaya
- Hospises
- Higaraka
- Abhiraka (Aubhirakes)
Kardamaka (Bhadramukhas) dynasty
change- List of rulers–
(main founder of the Western Satraps)
- Viceroy Ushavadata
- Chastana (78–130) , son of Ysāmotika
- Jayadaman, son of Chastana
- Rudradaman I (130–150) , son of Jayadaman
- Damajadasri I (170–175)
- Jivadaman (178-181, d. 199)
- Rudrasimha I (180–188, d. 197)
- Rudrasimha I (restored) (191–197)
- Satyadaman (197-198)
- Jivadaman (restored) (197–199)
- Rudrasena I (200–222)
- Prthivisena (222)
- Samghadaman (222–223)
- Damasena (223–232)
- Damajadasri II (232–239) with
- Viradaman (234–238)
- Isvaradatta (236–239)
- Yasodaman I (239)
- Vijayasena (239–250)
- Damajadasri III (251–255)
- Rudrasena II (255–277)
- Visvasimha (277–282)
- Bhartrdaman (282–295)
- Visvasena (293–304)
Rudrasimha II dynasty (c. 304 – 415 CE)
change- List of rulers–
- Rudrasimha II (304–348) , son of Lord (Svami) Jivadaman, with
- Yasodaman II (317–332)
- Rudradaman II (332–348) No coins known
- (Sridharavarman (339-368) No coins known
- Rudrasena III (348–380)
- Simhasena (380–384/5)
- Rudrasena IV (382–388)
- Rudrasimha III (388–415)
Minor local rulers
change- Bhadayasa
- Mamvadi
- Arsakes
Indo-Parthian rulers
change- Gondophares I (c. 19 – 46) Coin
- Gondophares II Sarpedones (first years AD – c. 20 AD)Coin
- Abdagases I (first years AD – mid-1st century AD) Coin
- Gondophares III Gudana, previously Orthagnes (c. 20 AD – 30 AD)
- Gondophares IV Sases, (mid-1st century AD)
- Ubouzanes, (late-1st century AD)
- Pacores (late 1st century AD) Coin
Kushan rulers
changeOne of the most recent list of rulers with dates is as follows:[32]
- Heraios (c. 1 – 30), first king to call himself "Kushan" on his coinage
- "Great Kushans";
- Kujula Kadphises (c. 50 – c. 90)
- Vima Takto (c. 90 – c. 113), alias Soter Megas or "Great Saviour."
- Vima Kadphises (c. 113 – c. 127) First great Kushan Emperor
- Kanishka the Great (127 – c. 151)
- Huvishka (c. 151 – c. 190)
- Vasudeva I (c. 190 – c. 230) Last great Kushan Emperor
- Kanishka II (c. 230 – 247)
- Vashishka (c. 247 – 267)
- "Little Kushans";
- Kanishka III (c. 267 – 270)
- Vasudeva II (c. 270 – 300)
- Mahi (c. 300 – 305)[33]
- Shaka (c. 305 – 335)[33]
- Kipunada (c. 335 – 350)[33]
Main Kushano-Sassanid rulers
changeThe following Kushanshahs were:[34]
- Ardashir I Kushanshah (230–245)
- Peroz I Kushanshah (245–275)
- Hormizd I Kushanshah (275–300)
- Hormizd II Kushanshah (300–303)
- Peroz II Kushanshah (303–330)
- Varahran Kushanshah (330–365)
Abbasi dynasty
changeThe Abbasid Dynasty of Bahawalpur traces its descent to the sixth Abbasid Caliph of Egypt who In the second half of the 14th century migrated to Sindh.[35]
Located on the other side of the Radcliffe Line from Bikaner and Jaisalmer, Bahawalpur was a seventeen-gun-salute state. It joined the ranks of the princely states under British paramountcy in 1833 after seeking the East India Company's protection against Ranjit Singh, the Sikh ruler of Punjab. Its sovereign in 1947 was Nawab Sadiq Muhammad Khan V, sixtieth in a line of descent that traced its origins to Al Abbas Ibn Abdul al Muttalib, an uncle of the Prophet Muhammad, through the Abbasid caliphs of Cairo and Baghdad. Bahawalpur was founded by Nawab Mohammad Bahawal Khan II in 1802 after the fall of the Durrani dynasty of Afghanistan that had occupied the region. Once stretching as far north as the Sutlej and Indus rivers, Bahawalpur had strategic importance and had been used as a base by the British for their campaigns in Baluchistan, Sind and Afghanistan.
Credit for turning a feudal backwater into a modern state with grand public buildings, canals, railways, and an efficient administration goes to Sadiq Muhammad Khan IV, who ascended the gaddi at the age of four and was invested with full powers at the age of eighteen in 1879. Unlike his traditionally dressed father, Sadiq Muhammad V belonged to the 'breeches and boots and flannels for cricket' school of ruler and prided himself on his European tastes, though he was also fanatical about his ancestry and wore a fez to emphasize his Abbasid roots.[36]
References
change- ↑ Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-10-15). Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume II: A Prelude to Civilization. Amazon. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-4959-4130-6.
...archaeologists often call the whole area the Greater Indus Region or the Greater Indus Valley. Thus, Ancient Pakistan is essentially the Greater Indus Valley; it is more a cultural and geographic unit than a political one.
- ↑ Possehl, Gregory L. (2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-7591-0172-2.
The Greater Indus region is the easternmost portion of a large cultural and natural area of antiquity, stretching from the Mediterranean Sea to the Thar Desert ...
- ↑ Wheeler, R. E. M. (1950). Five thousand years of Pakistan. London. ISBN 9789694071282.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ↑ सिंह, राज पाल. "रोड़ इतिहास की झलक = Glimpses of Ror history". 東京外国語大学附属図書館OPAC (in Japanese). Retrieved 2024-08-17.
- ↑ Samad, Rafi U. (2002). The Greeks in Ancient Pakistan. Indus Publications. ISBN 978-969-529-001-9.
- ↑ Simonin, Antoine (2011). "Euthydemid". World History Encyclopaedia. Retrieved 17 August 2024.
- ↑ Gordon, D. H. (1950). "FIVE THOUSAND YEARS OF PAKISTAN. By R. E. M. Wheeler. pp. 150, Royal India and Pakistan Society, London. 1950. 31s 6d". Antiquity. 24 (96): 219–220. doi:10.1017/S0003598X0002353X. ISSN 0003-598X.
- ↑ "The Indus River Valley Civilizations | World Civilizations I (HIS101) – Biel". courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved 2024-08-17.
Over time, three major theories have developed concerning Harappan governance or system of rule. The first is that there was a single state encompassing all the communities of the civilization, given the similarity in artifacts, the evidence of planned settlements, the standardized ratio of brick size, and the apparent establishment of settlements near sources of raw material. The second theory posits that there was no single ruler, but a number of them representing each of the urban centers, including Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and other communities. Finally, experts have theorized that the Indus Valley Civilization had no rulers as we understand them, with everyone enjoying equal status.
- ↑ Ahsan, Aitzaz (2013). The Indus saga and the making of Pakistan (First Jumhoori Publications Print ed.). Lahore, Pakistan: Jumhoori Publications. ISBN 978-969-9739-70-5.
- ↑ Kazimi, Muhammad Reza (2006). "The Ghaznavids: An Overview". Pakistan Perspectives. 11.
- ↑ Awan, Muhammad Tariq (1991). History of India and Pakistan: Great Mughals. Ferozsons. ISBN 978-969-0-10035-1.
- ↑ Bangash, Yaqoob Khan (2015). A Princely Affair: The Accession and Integration of the Princely States of Pakistan, 1947-1955. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-906649-0.
- ↑ Singh, Amarinder (2010). The Last Sunset: The Rise & Fall of the Lahore Durbar. Lotus Collection. ISBN 978-81-7436-779-2.
- ↑ "George VI (1895–1952), king of Great Britain, Ireland, and the British dominions beyond the seas, and sometime emperor of India". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-33370. Retrieved 2024-08-17.
India and Pakistan remained among the king's dominions but both were set on republican courses, becoming republics within the Commonwealth in 1950 and 1956 respectively.
- ↑ Roussillon, Alexandre (2020-11-05). "Indian Royal Titles & Aristocratic Ranks | Nobility Titles - Genuine Titles Of Nobility For Sale". Nobility Titles. Retrieved 2024-08-08.
- ↑ "Language Log » On the etymology of the title Tham of Burusho kings". Retrieved 2024-08-11.
- ↑ Phang, Sara; Iain, Spence; Kelly, Douglas; Londey, Londey (2016). Conflict in Ancient Greece and Rome: The Definitive Political, Social, and Military Encyclopedia [3 volumes]: The Definitive Political, Social, and Military Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 239. ISBN 978-1-61069-020-1.
- ↑ Lari, Suhail Zaheer (1994). A History of Sindh. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-577501-3.
- ↑ Siṃha, Rāja Pāla (1987). रोड़ इतिहास की झलक = Glimpses of Ror history. Pal Publications. pp. 89–92.
- ↑ MacLean, Derryl N. (1989). Religion and Society in Arab Sind. BRILL. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-04-08551-0.
- ↑ "The Story of Rudrayana and the Bhallatiya Jakata". web.archive.org. 2013-06-03. Retrieved 2024-08-18.
- ↑ "The Divyavadana (Tibetan version) reports: 'The Buddha is in Rajgriha. At this time there were two great cities in Jambudvipa: Pataliputra and Roruka. When Roruka rises, Pataliputra declines; when Pataliputra rises, Roruka declines.' Here was Roruka of Sindh competing with the capital of the Magadha empire." Chapter 'Sindhu is divine', The Sindh Story, by K. R. Malkani from Karachi, Publisher: Sindhi Academy (1997), ISBN 81-87096-01-2
- ↑ Page 317, Lord Mahavira and His Times, by Kailash Chand Jain, Published 1992 by Motilal Banarsidass Publications, ISBN 81-208-0805-3
- ↑ Page 174, Alexander's campaigns in Sind and Baluchistan and the siege of the Brahmin town of Harmatelia, Volume 3 of Orientalia Lovaniensia analecta, by Pierre Herman Leonard Eggermont, Peeters Publishers, 1975, ISBN 90-6186-037-7, 978-90-6186-037-2.
- ↑ Story of Udayan and the town of Vitabhaya
- ↑ Siṃha, Rāja Pāla (1987). रोड़ इतिहास की झलक = Glimpses of Ror history. Pal Publications. pp. 89–92.
- ↑ Under each king, information from Bopearachchi is taken from Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Catalogue Raisonné (1991) or occasionally SNG9 (1998). Senior's chronology is from The Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian king sequences in the second and first centuries BC, ONS179 Supplement (2004), whereas the comments (down to the time of Hippostratos) are from The decline of the Indo-Greeks (1998).
- ↑ O. Bopearachchi, "Monnaies gréco-bactriennes et indo-grecques, Catalogue raisonné", Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, 1991, p. 453
- ↑ History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE, Sonya Rhie Quintanilla, BRILL, 2007, p. 9 [1]
- ↑ Hartel, Herbert (2007). On The Cusp Of An Era Art In The Pre Kuṣāṇa World. BRILL. p. 324.
- ↑ Dating and locating Mujatria and the two Kharahostes, Joe Cribb, p.29
- ↑ Jongeward, David; Cribb, Joe (2014). Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins A Catalogue of Coins From the American Numismatic Society by David Jongeward and Joe Cribb with Peter Donovan. p. 4.
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 The Glorious History of Kushana Empire, Adesh Katariya, 2012, p.69
- ↑ Rezakhani 2017b, p. 78.
- ↑ Jafri, Saiyid Zaheer Husain; Reifeld, Helmut (2006). The Islamic Path: Sufism, Society, and Politics in India. Rainbow Publishers. ISBN 978-81-86962-85-5.
- ↑ Zubrzycki, John (2024-02). Dethroned: The Downfall of India's Princely States. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-80526-053-0.
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